PHYSICAL EDUCATION
INTRODUCTION
Test and measurement is necessary for a successful programme of physical education. Measureme8nt and evaluation techniques are applied to judge the progress of the programme in physical education. Measurement and evaluation is the method of techniques which give information about the fitness level of an individual. The measurement progress is directly applied on an individual and its main objectives are measurement of consecutive learning body fitness and psychomotor sports skill. If we do not measure our fitness even after taking part in the fitness programme, we remain in the dark. According to Lenardo Da Vinci, if you are enamored of practice without scientific ways, you are just like a pilot who goes into a ship without radar and compass and does not know his destination.” Measurement is a process in which our level of fitness and performance, personality traits and skill of different techniques are measured with the help of standard tests.
Test, Measurement and Evaluation
Meaning of Test
The presentation of a situation or a series of situations which bring out a specific response or answer from the subject is known as test. The response or reaction is liable to be measured quantitatively and qualitatively. A test may be subjective or objective in an activity or an order or a question. The following definitions of test can help us to understand the meaning of
test.
A test is a procedure to check the quality, performance or reliability of something.
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In fact, a test is a specific tool, procedure or technique used to elicit a response from the sportsperson in order to gain information to be used as a basis for appraisal of the quantity or quality of elements such as fitness, skill, knowledge and values, Testing is a very significant task for the purpose of good planning of the programme in physical education. There are various tests in the field of physical education and sports such as Fitnessgram, Kraus Weber Test, Miller Volleyball Test, Rock Port One Mile Test and National Physical Efficiency Test, etc.
Meaning of Measurement
Meaning of measurement is very important and significant for a sportsman to set the objective es which he wants to achieve in physical education and sports programmes. It is essential to know whether the objectives of a sportsman have been achieved or not. To know whether or not the objectives have been achieved, measurement and evaluation techniques are
used.
Measurement is the process of attaching a numerical value to an aspect of a natural phenomenon, in order to be able
to describe that phenomenon accurately and make comparison to other similar phenomena. To begin the process of
measurement, we need to recognize the type of phenomenon called the physical dimension that we would like to measure.
Following definitions make the things clearer:
Hence, measurement is a process by which the level of performance, fitness, ability, knowledge, personality and skills are measured with the help of various standard tests. Measurement is the process of collecting information. Measurement may be defined as, "An aid to evaluation process by the collection of data using the acronym -PROVABLE."
P-Precise, R- Reliable, O- Objective, V- Valid, A- Accurate, B-Bound, L-Lead, E- Expertise".
Meaning of Evaluation
Test and measurement are the prerequisites for evaluation. Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the design, implementation or results of an initiative for the purpose learning or decision-making. The evaluation tells the woeth or progress of the individual or group. It is basically a subjective judgement based upon interpretation or analysis of data/score
gained from the test. Definition : According to Tuckman, “Evaluation is a process where in the pats, processes or outcomes of a programme are examined to see whether they are satisfactory, particularly with reference to the programs stated objectives our own expectations or our own standards of excellence."
Importance of Test, Measurement and Evaluation in Sports
Test, measurement and evaluation are an essential and an important aspect of physical education and sports. Without measurement, which constitutes a very vital aspect of physical education programme, it would be very difficult for us to determine the level of achievement in various physical education activities of sports. Measurement is an essential element of all sports in two ways. First, measurements are taken to determine the outcome of an event, such as which runner was the fastest or which pole-vaulter jumped the highest. Secondly, measurements are used to communicate the agreed rules and regulations of a particular sport. It would be unfair, for example, to claim a
world record in the 50 metres freestyle event if the swimming pool is a few centimeters short of the required length.
The following points clarify the importance of measurement in physical education and sports.
1. To Get Knowledge about the Progress : With help of tests and measurement, physical education teachers can get the appropriate knowledge about the progress of the player/athlete. To know about the progress, the trainer may be modified to the training programme in the benefit of the player. Without measurement, the trainer and the player both are in dark about their achievement either in training or in learning.
2. For Effective Planning : The effective planning can be prepared with the help of test and measurement. Without tests and measurements, good planning can be completely useless. Teaching or coaching methods can be changed on the basis of test and measurement. Students can be guided or directed appropriately with the help of tests and measurements.
3.For Knowing the Achievements in Future : There is no doubt that present performance can be examined with the help of test and measurement and on the basis of present performance the achievements of the future can be predicted. So, in predicting the achievement of the future can be predicted. So, in predicting the achievement of sportspersons in the coming future, test and measurement are the important tools. Consequently, we can say that tests and measurements are really significant in the field of physical education and sports.
4.For Discovered the Needs of Participants : In discovering the needs of participants, test and measurement is very helpful. It identifies the strengths and weaknesses of participants or students. The curriculum can be prepared accordingly. It is also where emphasis should be laid.
5.For Motivation : The measurement processes create interest in training programme because it motivates the athlete positively for faithful and sincere participation. Physical education and sports training programmes without measurement become boring and directionless due to non-involvement of the interest in the training. Testing serves as a very effective
motivation device. Enhancement in the performance of an athlete may automatise motivation and the athlete may do more hard work to improve his performance level.
6.For Classification of Players : The first step for a physical education teacher/coach is to classify the participating sportsperson into various groups based on some scientific background with the help of testing their capacities and presentlevel of fitness. The classification may be based on age, sex, body size (weight and height), sports skills, interest, general physical fitness, etc.
7. For Research and Experimentation : In the research and experimentation field of physical education and sports, test and measurement are very significant tools. It is also important for the development of the profession of physical education because without research and experimentation no profession can be uplifted and ameliorated. Test and measurement
encourage the researchers to find out the gaps in the existing knowledge and bridge those gaps. With the help of research new styles and techniques are developed. These ultimately depended on test and measurement.
8.Selection of a Sportsperson: Tests are used to select few participants for various categories of sports activities on the basis of some scientific selection criteria.
9. For predicting Performance Potentials : The talent selection in sports and coaching of teams in various sports is generally improved by predicting the future potential of sports probably with the help of testing procedures. It also enables the coach to predict performance on a given time, moreover, helps to predict future achievements.
10. For Comparing and Evaluating training Methods: This enables the teacher/coach to compare different training methods suitable for different groups or categories
Calculation of Body Mass Index (BMI) and Waist-Hip Ratio
Body Mass Index (BMI)
The Body Mass Index is a statistical measurement which compares a person's weight and height. It is the most widely used tool to identify the weight problems. Actually, it does not measure the percentage of body fat but it is a very useful tool to estimate a healthy body weight based on how tall a person is. BMI is very easy to measure and evaluate. With the help of BMI, a person comes to know whether he/she is underweight, normal weight, overweight or in the categories of obesity. BMI can be defined as "the person's body weight divided by the
square of his height." Its value is measured in kg/m². BMI can be determined by using a BMI chart given ahead.
BMI of an individual can be calculated with the help of following formula:
Body Mass Index = Body WeightHeight x Height
Once the BMI number is determined, then with the help of World Health Organization criteria the following table is used
For example : Suppose that an individual body weight is 80 kg and his height is 1.80m.
Body Mass Index = Weight (kg)Height (m)
Height1.80 m, weight 80 kg
BMI Calculation = 80 /(1.80)2= 24.69
Precaution: The following precautions must be taken while taking measurements of an individual body weight and hines
From the above table, the score 24.69 shows normal weight status.
calculating BMI:
1. Body weight should be taken on correct weighing machine.
2. While taking body weight one should be barefooted and must wear required clothes.
3. Height of an individual should be measured on barefooted and his body should be in straight position.
Calculation of Waist-Hip Ratio
Waist-hip ratio is the measurement of waist-circumference divided by hip-circumference. For example, if an individual (male) waist-measurement is 36 inch and the hip measurement is 48 inches, it gives a Waist-hip ratio of 0.75. around their waist are at greater risk of lifestyle related disease such as heart diseases and diabetes than those with weig The waist to hip ratio is an important tool that helps to determine the overall health risk. People with more weg Testing and measurement are the means of collecting information upon which subsequent performance evaluation and decisions are made but in the analysis we need to keep in mind the factors that may influence the results. The degree of health risk can estimated in a better way by using BMI along with the waist-hip ratio. The following tableme be helpful to know the degree of health risk.
Administration
To determine, if you have a healthy waist-hip ratio or not, use a measuring tape to measure the circumference of your hips the widest part of your buttocks. After that measure your waist, just above the belly button. For determining the waist-hip ratio compute the measurements in the following equation:
Waist - Hip Ratio = Waist CircumferenceHip Circumference
The measurements can be taken in inches or centimeters,
Somato Types or Body Types
No two persons are alike. Even twins are also not alike. They are different from each other in various ways. There are many types of individual differences among them. Even physically, people are different. Some are tall and some are short, some a fat and some are thin or skinny. Owing to such differences, it is a very difficult, intricate and complex task to classify individual
No doubt, there are individual differences but even then there are similarities in various characteristics of those individual On this basis of similar traits, some of the psychologists have made endeavours to classify them. Not only, have they tried classify the individuals physically but they have tried to classify them mentally and practically. We are also well aware that
there are various types of physical activities, games and sports. In fact, different types of characteristics are required different types of activi ies, games and sports. Each and every individual cannot reach at the apex level in each game Therefore, the classification of students becomes even more important for a teacher the field of physical education ar students only after having the proper classification on the basis of physical, mental and practical aspects. its because he/she can then teach various physical activities, games and sports in a better and effective way to the
Types or Body Types
1.Endomorph: Endomorphs have a pear shaped and a rounded physique. They have short arms and legs. The upper parts of the Ectomorph of arms and legs seem to be thicker than the lower parts. They have underde-veloped muscles. They are more inclined to become obese. Their excessive mass hinders their ability to compete in sports. These are most suitable for activities In which great strength is required.
Typical traits of an Endomorph :
(i) Soft and round body
(ii) is generally short
(iii) Round physique
(iv) Finds it hard to lose fat
(v) Gains muscle and fat very easily
(vi) Hot stocky build
(vii) Slow metabolism
2. Mesomorph: Mesomorphs have a rectangular shaped body with athletic physique and a balanced body composition. They are able to increase their muscles size quickly and easily. They have thick bones and muscles. Their chest and shoulders are broader than the waistline. They can excel in sports which require great strength, short bursts of energy and lots of power because they have enough strength, agility and speed.
Typical traits on a Mesomorph :
(i) Athletic
(ii) Generally hard body
(ii) Well defined muscles
(iv) Rectangular shaped body
(v) Strong
(vi) Gains muscles easily
The mesomorph body type responds the best to Wight training. 'gains are usually seen very quickly, especially for beginners. The downside to mesomorphs, they gain fat more easily then ectomorphs. Usually a combination of weight training and cardio works best for mesomorphs. The calculations for the mesomorphy rating is based on the measurement of height, breadth of the humerus and femur, and girth of the biceps (flexed and relaxed) and calf. The girths are
corrected for body fat using to skinfold measures
3.Ectomorph: Ectomorphs are usually referred to as slim persons because their muscles and limbs are elongated. They have a weak constitution of being busy and face great difficulty in gaining weight. They have flat chest and have less muscle mass.
They do not have a lot of strength but they dominate the endurance sports as their body type is naturally suited to perform
wonderfully in endurance sports. They are best suited for games and sports like gymnastics and long distance races.
Typical traits of an ectomorph :
(i) Small 'delicate' frame and bone structure
(ii) Classic hard gainer
(iii) Flat chest
(iv) Small shoulders
(v) Thin
(vi) Lean muscle mars
(vii) Finds it hard to gain weight
Measurement of Health Related Fitness There are five areas of health related fitness. They are 1. Cardiovascular Endurance
2. Muscular Strength
3. Muscular Endurance
4. Flexibility
5. Body Composition
1. Measurement of Cardiovascular Endurance
Cardiovascular endurance is the ability to exercise the entire body for long periods of time. It requires a strong heart, healthy lungs, and clear blood vessels to supply the body with oxygen. Activities to improve fitness in this area include running, swimming and aerobic dance. This is an important component of fitness because it impacts other components of fitness.
There are various tests to measure the cardiovascular endurance such as:
1. Harvard Step Test
Harvard step test or cardio vascular fitness test is conducted to measure the cardiovascular fitness or aerobic fitness by
checking the recovery rate.
Equipment Required : A gym bench or box of 20 inches height for men and 16 inches for women and a stopwatch.
Procedure : The athlete is asked to step on a bench and back at the rate of 30 steps per minute. The stepping process is
performed in four counts i.e., (i) one foot is placed on the bench; (ii) other foot is placed on the bench; (iii) one foot is placed on
the floor; (iv) other foot is placed on the floor. This test is conducted for either 5 minutes or till exhaustion, which means that
the athlete is unable to maintain the stepping rate for 15 seconds. Once the test is completed, the athlete is asked to sit-down
and the total numbers of heartbeats are counted between 1 to 1.5 minutes, 2 to 2.5 minutes and 3 to 3.5 minutes.
scoring: The scoring for this test is calculated as follows:
Physical Efficiency Index (PEI) =(Duration of exercise in seconds x 100)(2 x Sum of three pulse counts in recovery)
Fitness Test Score
The fitness level may be determined from the parameters given below:
Advantages
(i) Minimum equipments are required for conducting this test.
(ii) It requires minimal cost.
(iii) It is simple to set up and conduct.
Disadvantages: There are differences in biomechanical characteristics among individuals. But the height of the box or the bench remains the same for tall individuals and short individuals. It will be easy for tall individuals and difficult for short individuals. The same difference can be seen in case of body weight. Those individuals who are overweight, it will be difficult for them. So, it is not implemented equally to all individuals.
Precautions
(i) The candidate should wear shorts and shoes.
(ii) At each stage, the candidate must make his waist and shoulder ends straight.
(iii) Keep the rhythm of the steps.
(iv) Only after exhausting, the candidate should stop before the five-minute period.
2. Rockport Fitness Walking Test
The Rockport Fitness Walking Test or Rockport One Mile Test is ideal for individuals with low fitness level, especially for those who follow a sedentary lifestyle, to evaluate their aerobic fitness through assessment of their Vo, max (maximum volume of oxygen).
Equipment Required: 400 mts. well-levelled track, a stopwatch and a weighing scale.
Procedure: Before the walk, the weight of the individual is measured and recorded. The starting point is marked and an individual has to run the track to cover a distance of one mile. One mile equals 1609 metres, so the individual may run the track four times to and fro to cover a comparable distance. With the help of a stopwatch, the time taken is recorded.
Immediately after completion of the run, the heart rate is checked manually or with a heart rate monitor.
To calculate VO2 max, following formula may be used :
VO2 max = 132.853 – (0.0769 x Weight) – (0.3877 x Age) + (6.315 x Gender) – (3.2649x Time) - (0.1565 x Heart Rate)
In the above formula,
Weight is in pound (lbs). Gender (Male = 1 and Female = 0)
Time is expressed in minutes and 100ths of minutes. Heart rate is in beats/minute
Age is in years.
A person who is interested in taking this test should first consult a doctor if he/she has any serious health complications. It also tends to be inaccurate for participants under the age of 30 or over the age of 79.
Advantages of the test: The main advantage of this test is minimum requirement of equipment and costs and that the test can be self-administered.
Disadvantage of the test : Specific facilities are required for this test
3. Tutle Pulse Ratio Test
The test was constructed by Tuttle in 1931. This test is based on the assumption that the person having better endurance, will have a lesser increase in his/her resting pulse rate after step exercise of one minute.
Equipment: A 13-inch high stool, metronome or tape recorder and stopwatch. is asked to step up and down on the 13 inch high stool a complete 30 steps per minute.
Test Administration: The subject is assisted to keep the subject has not performed any exercise at least one hour prior to the start of the test. After the resting pulse rate, the subject proper pace by announcing four counts to one complete step up and down. In order to assist the subject, either a tape should be used for the proper test administration. After the completion of 30 step ups in 1 minute, the subject is asked to sit recorder counting 1-2-3-4 for each step a 30 step ups for 1 minute ora metronome set at a cadence of 30 x 4 = 120 per minute down. The pulse rate is counted immediately and continuously for 2 minutes. This ratio is known as the Tutle pulse ratio score which is the direct indicator of cardiovascular efficiency of a person.
Scoring: A pulse ratio is computed by dividing the after exercise two minutes pulse count by 1 minute resting pulse count.
4. Queen Collage Step Test
The Queens College Step test is used to determine aerobic fitness. Compared to the Harvard
Step Test, this version has a lower step height, slower cadence, shorter test and more simple
analysis.
Purpose: This test provides a measure of cardiorespiratory or endurance fitness Equipment Required : 16.25 inches step, stopwatch, metronome or cadence tape, heart rate monitor (optional).
Procedure : The athlete steps up and down on the platform at a rate of 22 steps per minute
for females and at 24 steps per minute for males. The subjects are to step using a four-step
cadence, 'up-up-down-down' for 3 minutes. The athlete stops immediately on completion of
the test, and the heart beats are counted for 15 seconds from 5-20 seconds of recovery.
Multiply this 15 second reading by 4 will give the beats per minute (bpm) value to be used in the
Scoring : An estimation of Vo,max can be calculated from the test results, using this formula.
using the VO2 ,max norms.
Men: VO2 max (ml/kg/min) = 111.33 - [(0.42 x heart rate (bpm)]
Women: VO2,max (ml/kg/min) = 65.81 - (0.1847 x heart rate (bpm)]
II. Measurement of Muscular Strength
Muscular Strength is the amount of force one can put exert with his/her muscles. It is often measured by how much weight one can lift. People with strength have fewer problems with backaches and can carry out their daily tasks efficiently. Examples of muscular strength include push-ups, weight lifting heavy weight with few repetitions, and pull-ups. There are various test to
measure muscular strength. For example-
1. Kraus-Weber Test
This test was development by Dr. Kraus and Dr. S. Weber. This test helps in checking or testing the minimum muscular strength required by a fit person. In fact, this test measures the level of strength and flexibility of certain key muscles or muscle group, below which there will be difficulty in normal functioning of whole body. This test is conducted on pass or fail basis. Although, some partial movements in each test can be scored on a scale of 0 to 10 points.
Administration of Kraus-Weber Test
(i)First Test: The subject lies down flat on his back with his hands behind his neck. The examiner then holds the subject's feet to keep him on the ground. The subject is then asked to perform one sit-up. If he/she performs one sit-up, he passes the test. But, if he/she cannot raise his/her shoulders from the ground, his score remains zero.
(ii)second Test : The subject remains in the lying position except that his knees are bent and ankles remain in touch with his buttocks. He is then asked to perform one sit-up. If he is able to perform a full sit-up, he passes the test, but if he fails : to raise his shoulders from the ground, he scores a zero.
(iii)Third Test: The subject lies flat on his back with his hands behind the neck. He is asked to raise his feet 10 inches from the ground. During this his knees should be straight. The examiner counts till 10 seconds. If the subject holds that position for 10 seconds, he passes the test. Scoring from 0-10 depends on the number of seconds the subject holds the appropriate position.
(iv) Fourth Test: The subject lies on his stomach with a pillow under his lower abdomen and his hands behind the neck. The examiner then holds his feet down. The subject is asked to raise his chest, head and shoulders. During this the examiner counts till 10 seconds. If he is able to hold the exact position he passes the test. Scoring from 0-10 depends on the number of seconds the subject holds the exact position.
(v) Fifth Test: The subject lies on his stomach with a pillow under his lower abdomen. The examiner then holds his chest down and asks him to raise his feet. While doing so his knees should remain straight. The examiner counts till 10 seconds. Scoring from 0-10 depends on the number of seconds the subject holds the position.
(vi)Sixth Test: It is also known as floor-touch test. It is done to measures the flexibility of the trunk. The subject stands erect, bare-foot, hands at sides and feet together. He is asked to lean down slowly to touch the floor with fingertips for 3 seconds. During the test, bouncing or jerking is not allowed. The examiner holds the subject's knees in order to prevent
any bend, in case it occurs. Scoring from 0-10 depends on the number of seconds the subject holds the exact position.
2. Phillips JCR Test
This test also measures the General Motor ability of the subjects with respect to power, speed, agility and muscular endurance. The test consists of three items namely vertical jump (1), Chinning (C) and shuttle run (R).
Equipment Required : Vertical jump board or marked wall, marking chalk powder, stopwatch, chinning bar, 2 wooden blocks
(2" x 2" = 4").
Test Administration : The test procedure of each item is given below:
1. Vertical Jump : The subject is asked to stand erect facing the board. His/her dominant
the hand's fingertips are marked with chalk powder and the subject is asked to raise the marked fingertips to a maximum height on the blackboard without lifting the heels so as to mark his/her maximum reach point. The fingertips are re chalked. With the chalked hand side towards the wall, a vertical pump is to be performed by the subject to make another mark at the maximal height of the jump. The subject is not allowed to run or hop. However, the subject is properly instructed to take a good jump be bending knees and swinging the arms. The subject may be give three to five trails at his/her will and the best performance is considered.
Scoring: The maximum distance (among all the trails) between the reaching height and the jumping height provide the score of the test.
Chinning (Pull ups): Either an adjustable horizontal bar or one bar of the parallel bar which permits convenient raising and lowering, is used for this test item. A mat is laid on the floor to prevent the feet from slipping. The bar is adjusted to a height equal to the level of the sternum of the subject so that each has to pull approximately the same portion of her weight. The subject grasps the bar with palms outward and slides her feet under the bar until the body and arms form nearly a right angle when body is held straight. The weight rests on the heels. The subject is asked to pull- up to the bar with the body keeping straight as many times as possible. If the body sags, if the hips rise or if the subject does not pull completely up or go completely up or go completely down, half credits are given, up to four half credits.
Scoring: The number of complete pull-ups plus one half of the half counts constitute the scoring.
3.Shuttle Run: Two parallel lines are marked on the floor 10 yard apart or the width of the regular volleyball court may be used for the test. The two wooden blocks are placed behind one of the lines. The subject is asked to start from behind the line other than the one behind which the wooden blocks are placed. On the signal ready? go, the timer starts the watch and the subject runs towards the block, picks-up one block, runs back to the starting line, places the block behind the starting line, turns back and picks-up the second block is placed on the ground the timer stops the watch and records the time
Scoring: Two trails are allowed to each subject with some rest in between. The time of the better of the two trails is
recorded to the nearest 10th of the second as a score of the test item.
III. Measurement of Muscular Endurance
Muscular Endurance is the ability to use the muscles, which are attached to the bones, many times without getting tired. People with good muscular endurance are likely to have better posture, have fewer back problems, and be better able to resistfatigue than people who lack muscular endurance.
Following are some of the major tests to measure muscular endurance-
1. Sit-ups: In this test the student lies on his back with his knees bent, feet on the ground and heels not more than 12 inches from the buttocks. The angle at the knees should be less than 90 degrees. The student's hands should be behind the neck. Elbows must touch the knees while performing sit-ups. The student tightens his abdominal muscles and brings his head and elbows forward as he curls up, finally touching elbows to knees. This action constitutes one sit-up. The total number of repetitions of sit-ups in one minute only are noted. No resting is permitted between sit-ups.
2. Chin-ups : This test is administered on an adjustable horizontal bar. The height of the bar should be adjusted so it is approximately equal to the students's standing height. With the help of two supporters, one in front and one in back the student's body is lifted off the
ground until her chin is positioned above the bar, the elbows are flexed, and the chest is close to the bar. She is asked to hold the bar in the same position as long as possible. Her time is recorded in seconds.
3. YMCA Bench Press Test: The barbell load for men is 80 pounds and for the woman is 35 pounds. A metronome of 60 bpm (30 repetitions per minute). The participant lies on the bench, feet on floor, with a spotter ready. The bar is started in the down position (the weight is on the subject's chest) and the subjects perform full repetitions until fatigue or until the subject breaks the cadence.
IV. Measurement of Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to use your joints fully. You are flexible when the muscles are long enough and the joints are free enough to allow movement. People with good flexibility have fewer sore and injured muscles.
Following are some of the major tests to assess flexibility of a person-
1. Sit and Reach Test
This test is widely used as normal test of flexibility.
Purpose: The sit and reach test is a significant test to measure the flexibility of hip region including the lower back a hamstring muscles. Generally it is noted that owing to the lack of flexibility in this region there is a greater risk of injury. also entangled with lumbar and lower back pain.
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